Chapter 11: Outlining

University of Minnesota 

Learning Objectives 

1. Explain the principles of outlining.

2. Create a formal outline.

3. Explain the importance of writing for speaking.

4. Create a speaking outline.

Think of your outline as a living document that grows and takes form throughout your speech-making process. When you first draft your general purpose, specific purpose, and thesis statement, you could create a new document on your computer and plug those in, essentially starting your outline. As you review your research and distill the information down into separate central ideas that support your specific purpose and thesis, type those statements into the document. Once you’ve chosen your organizational pattern and are ready to incorporate supporting material, you can quote and paraphrase your supporting material along with the bibliographic information needed for your verbal citations into the document. By this point, you have a good working outline, and you can easily cut and paste information to move it around and see how it fits into the main points, subpoints, and sub-subpoints. As your outline continues to take shape, you will want to follow established principles of outlining to ensure a quality speech. 

The Formal Outline 

The formal outline is a full-sentence outline that helps you prepare for your speech. It includes the introduction and conclusion, the main content of the body, key supporting materials, citation information written into the sentences in the outline, and a references page for your speech. The formal outline also includes a title, the general purpose, specific purpose, and thesis statement. It’s important to note that an outline is different from a script. While a script contains everything that will be said, an outline includes the main content. Therefore you shouldn’t include every word you’re going to say on your outline. This allows you more freedom as a speaker to adapt to your audience during your speech. Students sometimes complain about having to outline speeches or papers, but it is a skill that will help you in other contexts. Being able to break a topic down into logical divisions and then connect the information together will help ensure that you can prepare for complicated tasks or that you’re prepared for meetings or interviews. I use outlines regularly to help me organize my thoughts and prepare for upcoming projects.

Outlining provides a scaffolding, or structure, that will help ensure your speech is logical, coherent, and organized. 

Wikimedia Commons – CC BY 2.0. 

Principles of Outlining 

There are principles of outlining you can follow to make your outlining process more efficient and effective. Four principles of outlining are consistency, unity, coherence, and emphasis (DuBois, 1929). In terms of consistency, you should follow standard outlining format. In standard outlining format, main points are indicated by capital roman numerals, subpoints are indicated by capital letters, and sub-subpoints are indicated by Arabic numerals. Further divisions are indicated by either lowercase letters or lowercase roman numerals. 

The principle of unity means that each letter or number represents one idea. One concrete way to help reduce the amount of ideas you include per item is to limit each letter or number to one complete sentence. If you find that one subpoint has more than one idea, you can divide it into two subpoints. Limiting each component of your outline to one idea makes it easier to then plug in supporting material and helps ensure that your speech is coherent. In the following example from a speech arguing that downloading music from peer-to-peer sites should be legal, two ideas are presented as part of a main point. 

• Downloading music using peer-to-peer file-sharing programs helps market new music and doesn’t hurt record sales.

The main point could be broken up into two distinct ideas that can be more fully supported. 

1. Downloading music using peer-to-peer file-sharing programs helps market new music.

2. Downloading music using peer-to-peer file-sharing programs doesn’t hurt record sales.

Following the principle of unity should help your outline adhere to the principle of coherence, which states that there should be a logical and natural flow of ideas, with main points, subpoints, and sub-subpoints connecting to each other (Winans, 1917). Shorter phrases and keywords can make up the speaking outline, but you should write complete sentences throughout your formal outline to ensure coherence. The principle of coherence can also be met by making sure that when dividing a main point or subpoint, you include at least two subdivisions. After all, it defies logic that you could divide anything into just one part. Therefore if you have an A, you must have a B, and if you have a 1, you must have a 2. If you can easily think of one subpoint but are having difficulty identifying another one, that subpoint may not be robust enough to stand on its own. Determining which ideas are coordinate with each other and which are subordinate to each other will help divide supporting information into the outline (Winans, 1917). Coordinate points are on the same level of importance in relation to the thesis of the speech or the central idea of a main point. In the following example, the two main points (I, II) are coordinate with each other. The two subpoints (A, B) are also coordinate with each other. Subordinate points provide evidence or support for a main idea or thesis. In the following example, subpoint A and subpoint B are subordinate to main point II. You can look for specific words to help you determine any errors in distinguishing coordinate and subordinate points. Your points/subpoints are likely coordinate when you would connect the two statements using any of the following: and, but, yet, or, or also. In the example, the word also appears in B, which connects it, as a coordinate point, to A. The points/subpoints are likely subordinate if you would connect them using the following: since, because, in order that, to explain, or to illustrate. In the example, 1 and 2 are subordinate to A because they support that sentence.

1. Downloading music using peer-to-peer file-sharing programs helps market new music.

2. Downloading music using peer-to-peer file-sharing programs doesn’t hurt record sales.

1. John Borland, writing for CNET.com in 2004, cited research conducted by professors from Harvard and the University of North Carolina that observed 1.75 million downloads from two file-sharing programs.

1. They conclude that the rapid increase in music downloading over the past few

years does not significantly contribute to declining record sales.

2. Their research even suggests that the practice of downloading music may even

have a “slight positive effect on the sales of the top albums.”

2. A 2010 Government Accountability Office Report also states that sampling “pirated” goods could lead consumers to buy the “legitimate” goods.

The principle of emphasis states that the material included in your outline should be engaging and balanced. As you place supporting material into your outline, choose the information that will have the most impact on your audience. Choose information that is proxemic and relevant, meaning that it can be easily related to the audience’s lives because it matches their interests or ties into current events or the local area. Remember primacy and recency discussed earlier and place the most engaging information first or last in a main point depending on what kind of effect you want to have. Also make sure your information is balanced. The outline serves as a useful visual representation of the proportions of your speech. You can tell by the amount of space a main point, subpoint, or sub-subpoint takes up in relation to other points of the same level whether or not your speech is balanced. If one subpoint is a half a page, but a main point is only a quarter of a page, then you may want to consider making the subpoint a main point. Each part of your speech doesn’t have to be equal. The first or last point may be more substantial than a middle point if you are following primacy or recency, but overall the speech should be relatively balanced. 

Sample Formal Outline 

The following outline shows the standards for formatting and content and can serve as an example as you construct your own outline. Check with your instructor to see if he or she has specific requirements for speech outlines that may differ from what is shown here. 

Title: The USA’s Neglected Sport: Soccer 

General purpose: To persuade 

Specific purpose: By the end of my speech, the audience will believe that soccer should be more popular in the United States. 

Thesis statement: Soccer isn’t as popular in the United States as it is in the rest of the world because people do not know enough about the game; however, there are actions we can take to increase its popularity. 

Introduction 

Attention getter: GOOOOOOOOOOOOAL! GOAL! GOAL! GOOOOOOAL! 

Introduction of topic: If you’ve ever heard this excited yell coming from your television, then you probably already know that my speech today is about soccer. 

Credibility and relevance: Like many of you, I played soccer on and off as a kid, but I was never really exposed to the culture of the sport. It wasn’t until recently, when I started to watch some of the World Cup games with international students in my dorm, that I realized what I’d been missing out on. Soccer is the most popular sport in the world, but I bet that, like most US Americans, it only comes on your radar every few years during the World Cup or the Olympics. If, however, you lived anywhere else in the world, soccer (or football, as it is more often called) would likely be a much larger part of your life. 

Preview: In order to persuade you that soccer should be more popular in the United States, I’ll explain why soccer isn’t as popular in the United States and describe some of the actions we should take to change our beliefs and attitudes about the game. 

Transition: Let us begin with the problem of soccer’s unpopularity in America.

Body

1. Although soccer has a long history as a sport, it hasn’t taken hold in the United States to the extent that it has in other countries.

1. Soccer has been around in one form or another for thousands of years.

1. The president of FIFA, which is the international governing body for soccer, was quoted in David Goldblatt’s 2008 book, The Ball is Round, as saying, “Football is as old as the world…People have always played some form of football, from its very basic form of kicking a ball around to the game it is today.”

2. Basil Kane, author of the book Soccer for American Spectators, reiterates this fact when he states, “Nearly every society at one time or another claimed its own form of kicking game.”

2. Despite this history, the United States hasn’t caught “soccer fever” for several different reasons.

1. Sports fans in the United States already have lots of options when it comes to playing and watching sports.

1. Our own “national sports” such as football, basketball, and baseball take up much of our time and attention, which may prevent people from engaging in an additional sport.

2. Statistics unmistakably show that soccer viewership is low as indicated by the much-respected Pew Research group, which reported in 2006 that only 4 percent of adult US Americans they surveyed said that soccer was their favorite sport to watch.

1. Comparatively, 34 percent of those surveyed said that football was their favorite sport to watch.

2. In fact, soccer just barely beat out ice skating, with 3 percent of the adults surveyed indicating that as their favorite sport to watch.

2. The attitudes and expectations of sports fans in the United States also prevent soccer’s expansion into the national sports consciousness.

1. One reason Americans don’t enjoy soccer as much as other sports is due to our shortened attention span, which has been created by the increasingly fast pace of our more revered sports like football and basketball.

1. According to the 2009 article from BleacherReport.com, “An American Tragedy: Two Reasons Why We Don’t Like Soccer,” the average length of a play in the NFL is six seconds, and there is a scoring chance in the NBA every twenty-four seconds. 

2. This stands in stark comparison to soccer matches, which are played in two forty-five-minute periods with only periodic breaks in play.

2. Our lack of attention span isn’t the only obstacle that limits our appreciation for soccer; we are also set in our expectations.

1. The BleacherReport article also points out that unlike with football, basketball, and baseball—all sports in which the United States has most if not all the best teams in the

world—we know that the best soccer teams in the world aren’t based in the United States.

2. We also expect that sports will offer the same chances to compare player stats and obsess over data that we get from other sports, but as Chad Nielsen of ESPN.com states, “There is no quantitative method to compare players from different leagues and continents.”

3. Last, as legendary sports writer Frank Deford wrote in a 2012 article on Sports Illustrated’s website, Americans don’t like ties in sports, and 30 percent of all soccer games end tied, as a draw, deadlocked, or nil-nil.

Transition: Although soccer has many problems that it would need to overcome to be more popular in the United States, I think there are actions we can take now to change our beliefs and attitudes about soccer in order to give it a better chance. 

2. Soccer is the most popular sport in the world, and there have to be some good reasons that account for this status.

1. As US Americans, we can start to enjoy soccer more if we better understand why the rest of the world loves it so much.

1. As was mentioned earlier, Chad Nielsen of ESPN.com notes that American sports fans can’t have the same stats obsession with soccer that they do with baseball or football, but fans all over the world obsess about their favorite teams and players.

1. Fans argue every day, in bars and cafés from Baghdad to Bogotá, about statistics for goals and assists, but as Nielsen points out, with the game of soccer, such stats still fail to account for varieties of style and competition.

2. So even though the statistics may be different, bonding over or arguing about a favorite team or player creates communities of fans that are just as involved and invested as even the most loyal team fans in the United States.

2. Additionally, Americans can start to realize that some of the things we might initially find off putting about the sport of soccer are actually some of its strengths. 

1. The fact that soccer statistics aren’t poured over and used to make predictions makes the game more interesting.

2. The fact that the segments of play in soccer are longer and the scoring lower allows for the game to have a longer arc, meaning that anticipation can build and that a game might be won or lost by only one goal after a long and even-matched game.

2. We can also begin to enjoy soccer more if we view it as an additional form of entertainment.

1. As Americans who like to be entertained, we can seek out soccer games in many different places.

1. There is most likely a minor or even a major league soccer stadium team within driving distance of where you live.

2. You can also go to soccer games at your local high school, college, or university.

2. We can also join the rest of the world in following some of the major soccer celebrities—David Beckham is just the tip of the iceberg.

3. Getting involved in soccer can also help make our society more fit and healthy.

1. Soccer can easily be the most athletic sport available to Americans.

2. In just one game, the popular soccer player Gennaro Gattuso was calculated to have run about 6.2 miles, says Carl Bialik, a numbers expert who writes for The Wall Street Journal.

3. With the growing trend of obesity in America, getting involved in soccer promotes more running and athletic ability than baseball, for instance, could ever provide.

1. A press release on FIFA’s official website notes that one hour of soccer three times a week has been shown in research to provide significant physical benefits.

2. If that’s not convincing enough, the website ScienceDaily.com reports that the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports published a whole special issue titled Football for Health that contained fourteen articles supporting the health benefits of soccer.

4. Last, soccer has been praised for its ability to transcend language, culture, class, and country.

1. The nongovernmental organization Soccer for Peace seeks to use the worldwide popularity of soccer as a peacemaking strategy to bridge the divides of race, religion, and socioeconomic class.

2. According to their official website, the organization just celebrated its ten-year anniversary in 2012.

1. Over those ten years the organization has focused on using soccer to bring together people of different religious faiths, particularly people who are Jewish and Muslim. 

2. In 2012, three first-year college students, one Christian, one Jew, and one Muslim, dribbled soccer balls for 450 miles across the state of North Carolina to help raise money for Soccer for Peace.

5. A press release on the World Association of Nongovernmental Organizations’s official website states that from the dusty refugee camps of Lebanon to the upscale new neighborhoods in Buenos Aires, “soccer turns heads, stops conversations, causes breath to catch, and stirs hearts like virtually no other activity.”

Conclusion 

Transition to conclusion and summary of importance: In conclusion, soccer is a sport that has a long history, can help you get healthy, and can bring people together. 

Review of main points: Now that you know some of the obstacles that prevent soccer from becoming more popular in the United States and several actions we can take to change our beliefs and attitudes about soccer, I hope you agree with me that it’s time for the United States to join the rest of the world in welcoming soccer into our society. 

Closing statement: The article from BleacherReport.com that I cited earlier closes with the following words that I would like you to take as you leave here today: “We need to learn that just because there is no scoring chance that doesn’t mean it is boring. We need to see that soccer is not for a select few, but for all. We only need two feet and a ball. We need to stand up and appreciate the beautiful game.” 

References 

Araos, C. (2009, December 10). An American tragedy: Two reasons why we don’t like soccer. Bleacher Report: World Football. http://bleacherreport.com/articles/306338-an-american-tragedy-the-two-reasons-why-we-dont like-soccer 

Bialik, C. (2007, May 23). Tracking how far soccer players run. WSJ Blogs: The Numbers Guy. http:// blogs.wsj.com/numbersguy/tracking-how-far-soccer-players-run-112 

Deford, F. (2012, May 16). Americans don’t like ties in sports. SI.com: Viewpoint. http:// sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2012/writers/frank_deford/05/16/Americans-do-not-like-ties/index.html 

FIFA.com (2007, September 6). Study: Playing football provides health benefits for all. http:// www.fifa.com/aboutfifa/footballdevelopment/medical/news/newsid=589317/index.html 

Goldblatt, D. (2008). The ball is round: A global history of soccer. Penguin.

Kane, B. (1970). Soccer for American spectators: A fundamental guide to modern soccer. A. S. Barnes. 

Nielsen, C. (2009, May 27). “What I do is play soccer.” ESPN. http://sports.espn.go.com/espn/news/story? id=4205057 

Pew Research Center. (2006, June 14). Americans to rest of world: Soccer not really our thing. Pew Research Center. http://pewresearch.org/pubs/315/americans-to-rest-of-world-soccer-not-really-our-thing 

ScienceDaily.com. (2010, April 7). Soccer improves health, fitness, and social abilities. ScienceDaily.com: Science news. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/04/100406093524.htm 

Selle, R. R. (n.d.). Soccer for peace. Wango.org: News. http://www.wango.org/news/news/psmp.htm 

Soccer For Peace. (2012). Kicking across Carolina. SFP news. http://www.soccerforpeace.com/ 2012-10-03-17-18-08/sfp-news/44-kicking-across-carolina.html 

Examples of APA Formatting for References 

The citation style of the American Psychological Association (APA) is most often used in communication studies when formatting research papers and references. The following examples are formatted according to the sixth edition of the APA Style Manual. Links are included to the OWL Purdue website, which is one of the most credible online sources for APA format. Of course, to get the most accurate information, it is always best to consult the style manual directly, which can be found in your college or university’s library. 

Books 

For more information on citing books in APA style on your references page, visit https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/ research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_books.html 

Single Author 

Two Authors 

Warren, J. T., & Fassett, D. L. (2011). Communication: A critical/cultural introduction. Sage. 

Chapter from Edited Book 

Mumby, D. K. (2011). Power and ethics. In G. Cheney, S. May, & D. Munshi (Eds.), The handbook of communication ethics (pp. 84–98). outledge.

Periodicals 

For more information on citing articles from periodicals in APA style on your references page, visit https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/ reference_list_articles_in_periodicals.html 

Magazine 

Huang, L. (2011, August 1). The death of English (LOL). Newsweek, 152(6), 8. 

Newspaper 

Kornblum, J. (2007, October 23). Privacy? That’s old-school: Internet generation views openness in a different way. USA Today, 1D–2D. 

Journal Article 

Bodie, G. D. (2012). A racing heart, rattling knees, and ruminative thoughts: Defining, explaining, and treating public speaking anxiety. Communication Education, 59(1), 70–105. 

Online Sources 

For more information on citing articles from online sources in APA style on your references page, visit https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/ reference_list_electronic_sources.html 

Online Newspaper Article 

Perman, C. (2011, September 8). Bad economy? A good time for a steamy affair. USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/money/economy/story/2011-09-10/economy-affairs-divorce-marriage/50340948/1 

Online News Website 

Fraser, C. (2011, September 22). The women defying France’s full-face veil ban. BBC News. http:// www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-15023308 

Online Magazine 

Cullen, L. T. (2007, April 26). Employee diversity training doesn’t work. Time. http:// www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1615183,00.html 

Government Document or Report Retrieved Online 

Pew Research Center. (2010, November 18). The decline of marriage and rise of new families. http:// pewsocialtrends.org/files/2010/11/pew-social-trends-2010-families.pdf

Website

Kwintessential. (n.d.). Cross cultural business blunders. http://www.kwintessential.co.uk/cultural-services/ articles/crosscultural-blunders.html 

The Speaking Outline 

The formal outline is a full-sentence outline that helps as you prepare for your speech, and the speaking outline is a keyword and phrase outline that helps you deliver your speech. While the formal outline is important to ensure that your content is coherent and your ideas are balanced and expressed clearly, the speaking outline helps you get that information out to the audience. Make sure you budget time in your speech preparation to work on the speaking outline. Skimping on the speaking outline will show in your delivery. 

Using note cards for your speaking outline will help you be able to move around and gesture more freely than using full sheets of paper. 

Justin See (coming back) – My Pile of Index Card – CC BY 2.0. 

You may convert your formal outline into a speaking outline using a computer program. I often resave a file and then reformat the text so it’s more conducive to referencing while actually speaking to an audience. You may also choose, or be asked to, create a speaking outline on note cards. Note cards are a good option when you want to have more freedom to gesture or know you won’t have a lectern on which to place notes printed on full sheets of paper. In either case, this entails converting the full-sentence outline to a keyword or key-phrase outline. Speakers will need to find a balance between having too much or too little content on their speaking outlines. You want to have enough information to prevent fluency hiccups as you stop to mentally retrieve information, but you don’t want to have so much information that you read your speech, which lessens your eye contact and engagement with the audience. Budgeting sufficient time to work on your speaking outline will allow you to practice your speech with different amounts of notes to find what works best for you. Since the introduction and conclusion are so important, it may be useful to include notes to ensure that you remember to accomplish all the objectives of each. 

Aside from including important content on your speaking outline, you may want to include speaking cues. Speaking cues are reminders designed to help your delivery. You may write “(PAUSE)” before and after your preview statement to help you remember that important nonverbal signpost. You might also write “(MAKE EYE CONTACT)” as a reminder not to read unnecessarily from your cards. Overall, my advice is to make your speaking outline work for you. It’s your last line of defense when you’re in front of an audience, so you want it to help you, not hurt you. 

Writing for Speaking 

As you compose your outlines, write in a way that is natural for you to speak but also appropriate for the expectations of the occasion. Since we naturally speak with contractions, write them into your formal and speaking outlines. You should begin to read your speech aloud as you are writing the formal outline. As you read each section aloud, take note of places where you had difficulty saying a word or phrase or had a fluency hiccup, then go back to those places and edit them to make them easier for you to say. This will make you more comfortable with the words in front of you while you are speaking, which will improve your verbal and nonverbal delivery. 

Tips for Note Cards 

1. The 4 × 6 inch index cards provide more space and are easier to hold and move than 3.5 × 5 inch cards.

2. Find a balance between having so much information on your cards that you are tempted to read from them and so little information that you have fluency hiccups and verbal fillers while trying to remember what to say.

3. Use bullet points on the left-hand side rather than writing in paragraph form, so your eye can easily catch where you need to pick back up after you’ve made eye contact with the audience. Skipping a line between bullet points may also help.

4. Include all parts of the introduction/conclusion and signposts for backup.

5. Include key supporting material and wording for verbal citations.

6. Only write on the front of your cards.

7. Do not have a sentence that carries over from one card to the next (can lead to fluency hiccups).

8. If you have difficult-to-read handwriting, you may type your speech and tape or glue it to your cards. Use a font that’s large enough for you to see and be neat with the glue or tape so your cards don’t get stuck together.

9. Include cues that will help with your delivery. Highlight transitions, verbal citations, or other important information. Include reminders to pause, slow down, breathe, or make eye contact.

10. Your cards should be an extension of your body, not something to play with. Don’t wiggle, wring, flip through, or slap your note cards.

Key Takeaways 

• The formal outline is a full-sentence outline that helps you prepare for your speech and includes the introduction and conclusion, the main content of the body, citation information written into the sentences of the outline, and a references page.

• The principles of outlining include consistency, unity, coherence, and emphasis.

• Coordinate points in an outline are on the same level of importance in relation to the thesis of the speech or the central idea of a main point. Subordinate points provide evidence for a main idea or thesis.

• The speaking outline is a keyword and phrase outline that helps you deliver your speech and can include speaking cues like “pause,” “make eye contact,” and so on.

• Write your speech in a manner conducive to speaking. Use contractions, familiar words, and phrases that are easy for you to articulate. Reading your speech aloud as you write it can help you identify places that may need revision to help you more effectively deliver your speech.

Exercises 

1. What are some practical uses for outlining outside of this class? Which of the principles of outlining do you think would be most important in the workplace and why?

2. Identify which pieces of information you may use in your speech are coordinate with each other and subordinate.

3. Read aloud what you’ve written of your speech and identify places that can be reworded to make it easier for you to deliver.

References 

DuBois, W. C., Essentials of Public Speaking (New York: Prentice Hall, 1929), 104. Winans, J. A., Public Speaking (New York: Century, 1917), 407.